Learning disabilities

What is a learning disability? Is it easy to identify?

These two questions must be asked at the same time.

There are “indicators” of potential learning disabilities, but all children are unique. Children differ from one another intellectually, emotionally, socially, and physically. Most students learn in regular classrooms and are taught successfully using traditional methods of instruction.

However, not all children follow this pattern. Some children struggle due to specific “learning disabilities” and require individualized instruction. These children may have difficulty in one or more academic areas, such as reading, math, or written language.

Often, a child’s estimated intellectual ability differs noticeably from their actual academic achievement. Some children show a clear gap between areas where they do well and areas that are more challenging. Others may have only one area of difficulty, such as reading comprehension, while some experience a combination of learning problems.

Therefore, to diagnose a learning disability, it is important to consider the following:

Has the child been thoroughly evaluated for both hearing and vision?
Are there other health issues that could be contributing?
Have other developmental milestones been within average ranges?
- Age of walking
- Age of first words
- Understandable speech
- Age of toilet training
- Development of small and large motor skills
- Development of socialization skills

Understanding how learning disabilities are identified

After addressing these questions, it is important to keep in mind that learning disabilities are not diagnosed in the same sense as “chickenpox.” There is no absolute or predictable set of symptoms. Parents and teachers may suspect a potential learning disability by observing development.

Children differ in their rate of development, and sometimes what appears to be a potential learning disability may simply be a delay in maturation. Not all learning problems are necessarily learning disabilities.

Proper diagnosis is important, and making a diagnosis is a complex task. There are “red flags” for potential learning disabilities, and research has stressed the importance of early identification of children who are “at risk” for learning disabilities. On the other hand, children develop at various rates, so parents are encouraged not to over‑react.

Risk factors to monitor

There may be a learning disability if a child:

Has a history of chronic ear infections during toddler or pre-school years.
Has difficulty copying basic geometric shapes.
Does not recall names and sounds of letters or numbers.
Has difficulty copying and recalling the formation of letters and numbers when a sample is not provided.
Has difficulty associating sounds with written symbols (e.g. “b” sounds like “b-b-b.”)
Does not recognize rhymes.
Has difficulty with letters or numbers which are easily reversed or inverted (e.g., b/d.)
Has difficulty with “automatic” recall of letters and numbers.
Has little experience with the idea that written words convey meaning.

Moving from observations to formal assessments

While children can be informally identified as being “at risk” for learning disabilities. An actual diagnosis can be made using standardized tests that compare a child’s level of ability with what is considered typical development for a person of the same age and intelligence.

In other words, specific criteria must be met to diagnose a learning disability. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders—Fifth Edition (DSM‑V) contains the criteria and characteristics used to diagnose learning disabilities. This manual provides specific guidelines professionals use to determine whether a formal diagnosis can be made.

For example, the diagnostic criteria from the DSM-V identify a learning disability in the area of reading based on the following:

Reading achievement, as measured by individually administered standardized tests of reading accuracy or comprehension, is substantially below that expected given the person’s chronological age, measured intelligence, and age-appropriate education.
The difficulties in bullet 1 significantly interfere with academic achievement or activities of daily living that require reading skills.
If a sensory deficit is present, the reading difficulties are in excess of those usually associated with it.

Assessments for possible learning disabilities are completed by professionals such as school psychologists, clinical psychologists, and/or educational specialists, as well as teachers who are certified in special education.

Federal definition of a learning disability

The federal definition of a learning disability comes into play if the need for special education is a possibility. This definition is more precise than the DSM-V definition, and it is the one schools and special education personnel most often use. It is as follows:

A condition within the individual affecting learning, relative to potential. A specific learning disability is manifested by interference with the acquisition, organization, storage, retrieval, manipulation, or expression of information so that the individual does not learn at an adequate rate when provided with the usual developmental opportunities and instruction from a regular school environment.
A specific learning disability is demonstrated by a significant discrepancy (which is determined by a statistical formula) between a pupil’s general intellectual ability and academic achievement. This formula tends to be quite rigid, although school districts demonstrate varying amounts of flexibility in their interpretation.
A specific learning disability is demonstrated primarily in academic functioning, but may also affect self-esteem, career development, and life adjustment skills.
A specific learning disability may occur with, but cannot be primarily the result of: visual, hearing, or motor impairment; mental impairment; emotional disorders; or environmental, cultural, economic influences, or a history of an inconsistent education program.

Intervention for learning disabilities

It is important to get help once a learning disability has been diagnosed. To receive special education services through the public school system, specific criteria must be met to qualify for various services. As suggested previously, the following steps must be completed in order to receive special education services for a learning disability:

A formal assessment is completed and indicates a significant discrepancy (or difference) between intelligence and academic skill development. For example, if the Intelligence score (or Full Scale IQ) is 100, then the reading achievement score must be 79 or below to qualify for services.
A “processing disorder” (which may include difficulty with areas such as memory, attention, or understanding of language) must be evident.
There must be evidence of severe underachievement in the classroom.

What are alternatives to special education services?

Children may obtain scores indicating they are struggling with academic skill development, but the scores are not discrepant enough for them to receive special education services. In these cases it is sometimes possible to qualify for other sources of support, such as Title I, Chapter I or Assurance of Mastery, which are federally funded programs for children in regular education who do not qualify for special education in the public schools.

In addition to these services, parents sometimes hire tutors to work with their children to strengthen skills and to provide support with work completion. This is not an optimal solution, however, as the cost of tutoring is not covered by insurance, nor is it compensated by the school.

What causes learning disabilities?

One of the first questions parents often ask when they learn their child has a learning disability is, “Why? How did this happen?” Despite years of research, professionals have made few gains in fully answering this question.

Recent studies suggest that learning disabilities may run in families, and the possibility of a genetic link has been explored. In addition, with the development of positron emission topography, or PET scans, researchers have been able to compare brain structures of people with and without learning disabilities.

These studies have identified very small differences in brain structure and functioning. This has led to further research into the physiological aspects of learning disabilities.

Other possible “causes” of learning disabilities are more closely related to environmental factors. Problems during pregnancy or delivery, the effects of tobacco, alcohol, or other drug use, and exposure to toxins in a child’s environment are also contributing factors.

Can learning disabilities be outgrown?

Perhaps the best answer is to re-phrase the question, and ask, “Can learning disabilities be managed?”

Can a person develop strategies to work around the disability and acquire skills needed for a successful and productive life? The answer to these questions is certainly “yes.”

In fact, countless individuals across cultures with reported learning disabilities, have made enormous achievements in science, politics, athletics, and the arts. It is thought that Albert Einstein, Thomas Edison, Winston Churchill, Nelson Rockefeller, George Patton, Walt Disney, Tom Cruise, and Cher have had some form of learning disability.

How to “work around” a learning disability

What interventions or accommodations help? The professionals working with individuals with learning disabilities have found that a multi-sensory, structured, systematic, and repetitious instructional approach has been most effective.

There are dozens of publications based on the studies and writings of Dr. Samuel T. Orton and Psychologist Anna Gillingham. In the 1920’s the two collaborated to develop an effective approach for teaching reading and written language skills to people with learning disabilities. Today, this approach is viewed as the most effective in working with individuals with these difficulties. The purpose of the Orton-Gillingham approach and related materials is to remediate skills.

In addition to remediation of skills, however, it is necessary to make accommodations. The following are commonly used and accepted by professionals and educators:

Use tape-recorded textbooks. The student either solely listens to the tape, or attempts to follow in their textbook as they listen.
Use instructor’s lecture notes. The student attempts to take their own notes during class, but is also provided with a complete copy of the instructor’s notes. The rationale is that unless this is a class in “notetaking” the student with learning disabilities should not be penalized for having difficulty getting the critical information down on paper while listening.
Use a proofreader. Often a Special Education teacher, tutor, parent, or peer-tutor reads and corrects mechanical errors in written language (e.g. spelling, capitalization, and punctuation). Again, emphasis is placed in the knowledge and skills the student has acquired, not on the “means” of acquiring or communicating this knowledge.
Other accommodations are included in a student’s IEP (Individualized Educational Plan) according to their specific learning needs. The IEP team (consisting of administrators, teachers and parents) agree on the particular accommodations needed for each student.
Alternative assignments. An instructor may accept a shorter written report along with a “hands on” project in lieu of a lengthy written report. For example, a student may draw or build a model of the Globe Theatre along with a shortened report on the life of Shakespeare.
Testing accommodations. Students may receive extended time during tests due to slow rate of task completion in academic areas.
- Tests also may be given in distraction-free settings when attention is part of the learning disability. In many instances, types of tests are altered. For a student with a learning disability in written expression, it may be preferable to use an objective test rather than an essay test. The goal of testing should be to determine whether the student acquired the knowledge and skill level of the course (not whether they can write quickly and efficiently within a given time period).

Resources on learning disabilities

Whether you’re looking for educational tools, community programs, or crisis support, these resources are here to help families navigate challenges with confidence.